Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Fundamentals, Design and Applications
Chapter 13 - Toxicology and Biocompatibility of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
A. Kiran Kumar, Jameel Ahmed S. Mulla, Snehal Chakorkar
Abstract:
Development of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) presents a highly effective nanocarrier system in drug delivery, diagnostic, cosmetic, and nutraceutical applications because of its special properties, such as controlled release, high biocompatibility and scalability. Although they have some benefits and are widely accepted as safe, their growing commercialization and biological exposure elevates the importance of the overall assessment of their toxicological profiles. This chapter gives a detailed discussion of the forces affecting SLN safety such as lipid composition, type and concentration of surfactant, particle size, surface charge, crystallinity, and degradation products. The major pathways of SLN toxicity, including oxidative stress, membrane damage, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, are discussed in reference to the results in vitro and in vivo. The chapter also explains the biocompatibility tests, regulatory aspects, and standard test methods that would be important in the provision of safe biomedical translation. The existing issues, gaps in knowledge, and future opportunities to develop safer and next-generation SLN systems are also indicated.
Keywords: Solid lipid nanoparticles, nanotoxicology, biocompatibility, drug delivery systems, lipid-based nanocarriers, cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, surface properties, biodistribution, safety assessment, in vitro toxicity, in vivo toxicity, regulatory considerations, nanomedicine.
References:
[1] Mulla J, Sharma NK, Khazi I. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Measures of Characterization. Indian Journal of Novel Drug delivery. 2011;3(4): 259-264.
[2] Mali JD, Mulla JAS. Ocular drug delivery system: A review. World Journal of Drug Targeting. 2023; 1(1): 9-24.
[3] Mulla JAS, Khazi MIA, Khan AY, Gong YD, Khazi AM. Design, Characterization and In vitro Evaluation of Imidazo[2,1- b][1,3,4]thiadiazole Derivative Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. Drug Invention Today. 2012; 4(8): 420-423.
[4] Doktorovová S, Kovacevic A, García ML, Souto EB. Preclinical safety of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers: Current evidence from in vitro and in vivo evaluation. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. 2016;108:235.
[5] Dhiman N, Awasthi R, Sharma B, Kharkwal H, Kulkarni GT. Lipid Nanoparticles as Carriers for Bioactive Delivery. Frontiers in Chemistry. Frontiers Media; 2021;9.
[6] M. N, S.Sangeetha SS, P SR, Narayanasamy D. The Science of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: From Fundamentals to Applications. Cureus [Internet]. Cureus, Inc.; 2024 Sep 6 [cited 2025 Sep]; Available from: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.68807
[7] Mulla J, Khazi I, Jamakandi V. Solid lipid nanoparticles: Potential applications. 2010;
[8] Bukke SPN, Venkatesh C, Rajanna SB, Saraswathi TS, Kusuma PK, Goruntla N, et al. Solid lipid nanocarriers for drug delivery: design innovations and characterization strategies—a comprehensive review. Deleted Journal [Internet]. 2024 May 16 [cited 2025 Oct];6(6). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-05897-z
[9] Mishra V, Bansal KK, Verma A, Yadav N, Thakur S, Sudhakar K, et al. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Emerging Colloidal Nano Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics [Internet]. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute; 2018 Oct 18 [cited 2025 Sep];10(4):191. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics10040191
[10] Jameel M, Ahmed SA, Nitinkumar SS, Shridhar IP, Imtiyaz K, Ahmed M. FORMULATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND IN VITRO EVALUATION OF NOVEL THIENOPYRIMIDINES AND TRIAZOLOTHIENOPYRIMIDINES LOADED SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES. 2010 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Nov]; Available from: http://www.ijrap.net/admin/php/uploads/281_pdf.pdf
[11] Sharma G. A Review on Solid-lipid Nanoparticle. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology [Internet]. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology (IJRASET); 2023 Aug 11 [cited 2025 Sep];11(8):775. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2023.55230
[12] Lavate MA, Karpe ST, Biradar SN, Bhandare MR. Solid lipid nanoparticles; as a promising drug delivery method to get greater bioavailability: A review. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences [Internet]. 2023 May 11 [cited 2025 Aug];14(2):72. Available from: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2023.14.2.0104
[13] Ramadon D. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN): Formulation and Fabrication. Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research [Internet]. 2023 Aug 30 [cited 2025 Oct];10(2). Available from: https://doi.org/10.7454/psr.v10i2.1313
[14] Godge G, Randhawan BB, Shaikh AB, Bharat S, Raskar MA, Hiremath S. Formulation Perspectives and Applications of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: A Review. Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences [Internet]. 2024 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Nov];14(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.26463/rjps.14_1_7
[15] Mulla J, Khazi I, Sharma NK, Hiremath S, Jamakandi V. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Methods of Preparation. 2011;
[16] Gulati P, Dewangan HK. ACECLOFENAC LOADED SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES: OPTIMIZATION, IN VITRO AND EX-VIVO EVALUATION. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics [Internet]. 2023 Jul 7 [cited 2025 Oct];184. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2023v15i4.48047
[17] Mulla J, Khazi I. Influence of process variables on particle size of solid lipid nanoparticles. 2009;
[18] Mulla JAS, Hiremath SP, Sharma NK. Repaglinide Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Design and Characterization.
[19] Javed S, Mangla B, Almoshari Y, Sultan MH, Ahsan W. Nanostructured lipid carrier system: A compendium of their formulation development approaches, optimization strategies by quality by design, and recent applications in drug delivery. Nanotechnology Reviews [Internet]. 2022 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Nov];11(1):1744. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0109
[20] Raj RK, Kolay A, Havelikar U. A REVIEW ON SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research [Internet]. 2023 Sep 15 [cited 2025 Oct];10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijcpr.2023v15i5.3051
[21] Nemati S, Mottaghi M, Karami P, Mirjalali H. Development of solid lipid nanoparticles-loaded drugs in parasitic diseases. Discover Nano [Internet]. 2024 Jan 4 [cited 2025 Oct];19(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-023-03955-w
[22] PHALAK SD, BODKE V, YADAV R, PANDAV S, RANAWARE M. A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ON NANO DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM: SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES (SLN). International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research [Internet]. 2024 Jan 15 [cited 2025 Oct];10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijcpr.2024v16i1.4020
[23] Khan S, Sharma A, Jain V. An Overview of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and its Application in Drug Delivery through Different Routes. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin [Internet]. Tabriz University of Medical Sciences; 2022 Sep 18 [cited 2025 Aug];13(3):446. Available from: https://doi.org/10.34172/apb.2023.056
[24] Doktorovová S, Souto EB, Silva AM. Nanotoxicology applied to solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers – A systematic review of in vitro data. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics [Internet]. Elsevier BV; 2014 Feb 12 [cited 2025 Sep];87(1):1. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.02.005
[25] Chauhan H, Mohapatra SK, Munt DJ, Chandratre SS, Dash AK. Physical-Chemical Characterization and Formulation Considerations for Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. AAPS PharmSciTech [Internet]. 2015 Aug 20 [cited 2025 Aug];17(3):640. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1208/s12249-015-0394-x
[26] Montoto SS, Muraca G, Ruiz ME. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: Pharmacological and Biopharmaceutical Aspects. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences [Internet]. Frontiers Media; 2020 Oct 30 [cited 2025 Oct];7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2020.587997
[27] Panchamukhi SI, Mulla JAS, Shetty NS, Khazi MIA, Khan AY, Kalashetti MB, et al. Benzothieno[3,2e][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3c]pyrimidines: Synthesis, Characterization, Antimicrobial Activity, and Incorporation into Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. 2011;
[28] Mulla J, Jokar SP, Jamakandi V. Preparation, Characterization and In vitro Evaluation of 5-Fluorouracil loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. 2010;
[29] Pizzol CD, Filippin-Monteiro FB, Sierra J, Pittella F, Silva AH, Souza PA de, et al. Influence of Surfactant and Lipid Type on the Physicochemical Properties and Biocompatibility of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health [Internet]. 2014 Aug 20 [cited 2025 Sep];11(8):8581. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110808581
[30] Mulla JA, Suresh S, Khazi IA. Formulation, Characterization and in vitro Evaluation of Methotrexate Solid Lipid Nanoparticles. 2009;
[31] Mujawar N, Mulla JAS. Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy: A Promising Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery System. 2025;
[32] Matta VDR. Excipients, drug release mechanism and physicochemical characterization methods of Solid lipid nanoparticles. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics [Internet]. 2021 Feb 15 [cited 2025 Oct];11:139. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i1-s.4533
[33] Haripriyaa M, Suthindhiran K. Pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles: current knowledge, future directions and its implications in drug delivery. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences [Internet]. 2023 Dec 11 [cited 2025 Oct];9(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-023-00569-y
[34] al. LMR et. II Nanosciesce and Nanotecnology Biomedicals Symposium – Proceedings. Biomedical and Biopharmaceutical Research [Internet]. 2013 Dec 1 [cited 2025 Jan];10(2):268. Available from: https://doi.org/10.19277/bbr.10.2.71
[35] Lan F, Mumper RJ. A critical review of lipid-based nanoparticles for taxane delivery. Cancer Letters [Internet]. Elsevier BV; 2012 Jul 13 [cited 2025 Oct];334(2):157. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2012.07.006
[36] Saxena V, Singh A. AN UPDATE ON BIO-POTENTIATION OF DRUGS USING NATURAL OPTIONS. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research [Internet]. 2020 Nov 7 [cited 2025 Oct];25. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2020.v13i11.38889
[37] Fernandez-Fernandez A, Manchanda R, Kumari M. Lipid-engineered nanotherapeutics for cancer management. Frontiers in Pharmacology [Internet]. Frontiers Media; 2023 Mar 23 [cited 2025 Oct];14. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1125093
[38] Lan F, Mumper RJ. A critical review of lipid-based nanoparticles for taxane delivery. 2013 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Oct]; Available from: https://doi.org/10.17615/cqvm-1w25
[39] Mohammed HA, Khan R, Singh V, Yusuf M, Akhtar N, Sulaiman GM, et al. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development. Nanotechnology Reviews [Internet]. 2023 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Oct];12(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0517
[40] Mujawar NK, Mulla JAS. Targeted Drug Delivery: Revolutionizing Breast Cancer Treatment with Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles. 2025;
[41] Jędrzejczak-Silicka M, Mijowska E. General Cytotoxicity and Its Application in Nanomaterial Analysis. In: InTech eBooks [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2025 Sep]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72578
[42] Hernández-Esquivel RA, Navarro‐Tovar G, Zárate-Hernández E, Aguirre-Bañuelos P. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN). In: IntechOpen eBooks [Internet]. IntechOpen; 2022 [cited 2025 Sep]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102536
[43] Pederzoli F, Galliani M, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Belletti D, Tosi G, et al. How does “Protein Corona” Affect the In vivo Efficiency of Polymeric Nanoparticles? State of Art [Internet]. IRIS UNIMORE (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia). University of Modena and Reggio Emilia; 2017 [cited 2025 Sep]. 41 p. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/11380/1152640
[44] Nkanga CI. Nanotoxicological profiles of clinically approved nanoplatforms. Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences [Internet]. 2023 Dec 16 [cited 2025 Sep];12(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00458-6
[45] Sharma A. Nanocomposite Materials for Biomedical and Energy Storage Applications [Internet]. IntechOpen eBooks. IntechOpen; 2021 [cited 2025 Sep]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95130
[46] Bagade OM, Doke-Bagade PE, Doke SE, Wankhade KS. Lipid And Polymer Based Nano-Phytotherapeutics. Nanofabrication [Internet]. 2023 Dec 20 [cited 2025 Sep];8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.37819/nanofab.8.1773
[47] Setia A, Vallamkonda B, Challa RR, Mehata AK, Badgujar P, Muthu MS. Herbal Theranostics: Controlled, Targeted Delivery and Imaging of Herbal Molecules. Nanotheranostics [Internet]. Ivyspring International Publisher; 2024 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Sep];8(3):344. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7150/ntno.94987
[48] Li C, Zhang J, ZU YJ, NIE SF, Cao J, Wang Q, et al. Biocompatible and biodegradable nanoparticles for enhancement of anti-cancer activities of phytochemicals. Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines [Internet]. Elsevier BV; 2015 Sep 1 [cited 2025 Oct];13(9):641. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1875-5364(15)30061-3
[49] Mehrdadi S. Lipid-based nanoparticles as oral drug delivery systems: overcoming poor gastrointestinal absorption and enhancing bioavailability of peptide/protein-based drugs. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin [Internet]. 2023 Oct 14 [cited 2025 Oct]; Available from: https://doi.org/10.34172/apb.2024.016
[50] Nayak MissA. Recent Advances in Polymeric Nano Formulations Using Phenolic Compound Targeting Anti Inflammation. African Journal of Biomedical Research [Internet]. 2024 Nov 19 [cited 2025 Sep];1797. Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/ajbr.v27i4s.3941
[51] Nikolić I, Đoković J, Méhn D, Guerrini G, Savić S, Jordan O, et al. When conventional approach in toxicity assays falls short for nanomedicines: a case study with nanoemulsions. Drug Delivery and Translational Research [Internet]. 2025 Jan 8 [cited 2025 Aug]; Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-024-01776-7
[52] Perugini V, Schmid R, Mørch Ý, Texier I, Brodde MF, Santin M. A multistep in vitro hemocompatibility testing protocol recapitulating the foreign body reaction to nanocarriers. Drug Delivery and Translational Research [Internet]. 2022 Mar 22 [cited 2025 Oct];12(9):2089. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-022-01141-6
[53] Dobrovolskaia MA. Pre-clinical immunotoxicity studies of nanotechnology-formulated drugs: Challenges, considerations and strategy. Journal of Controlled Release [Internet]. Elsevier BV; 2015 Sep 5 [cited 2025 Oct];220:571. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.056
[54] Thomas NG, Varghese N, Kalarikkal N, Thomas S, Sreedharan M, George SS, et al. Toxicity Evaluation and Biocompatibility of Nanostructured Biomaterials. In: IntechOpen eBooks [Internet]. IntechOpen; 2023 [cited 2025 Oct]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109078
[55] Đorđević S, Medel M, Conejos‐Sánchez I, Carreira B, Pozzi S, Acúrcio RC, et al. Current hurdles to the translation of nanomedicines from bench to the clinic. Drug Delivery and Translational Research [Internet]. Springer Science+Business Media; 2021 Jul 23 [cited 2025 Oct];12(3):500. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-021-01024-2
[56] Pande V, Kothawade S, Kuskar S, Bole S, Chakole D. Fabrication of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles and Its Applications in Drug Delivery. In: IntechOpen eBooks [Internet]. IntechOpen; 2023 [cited 2025 Sep]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112428
[57] Singh M, Guzmán‐Aránguez A, Hussain A, Srinivas CS, Kaur IP. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Ocular Delivery of Isoniazid: Evaluation, Proof of Concept and In Vivo Safety & Kinetics. Nanomedicine [Internet]. 2019 Jan 29 [cited 2025 Oct];14(4):465. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2217/nnm-2018-0278
[58] Joshi V, SULTHANA F, Ramadas D. ORAL DELIVERY OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES – A REVIEW. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research [Internet]. Innovare Academic Sciences; 2021 Nov 7 [cited 2025 Sep];9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2021.v14i11.42986
[59] Ali A, Madni A, Shah H, Jamshaid T, Jan N, Khan S, et al. Solid lipid-based nanoparticulate system for sustained release and enhanced in-vitro cytotoxic effect of 5-fluorouracil on skin Melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2023 Feb 28 [cited 2025 Oct];18(2). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281004
[60] Sharma A, Madhunapantula SV, Robertson GP. Toxicological considerations when creating nanoparticle-based drugs and drug delivery systems. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology [Internet]. Taylor & Francis; 2011 Nov 19 [cited 2025 Oct];8(1):47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2012.637916
[61] CBIOS Cience Sessions and III Symposium of Nanoscience and Biomedical Nanotechnology. Biomedical and Biopharmaceutical Research [Internet]. 2016 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Jan];13(1):104. Available from: https://doi.org/10.19277/bbr.13.1.134
[62] Kumar K, Singh RK, Tyagi P, Gore D. Assessment of Toxicity and Safety Profiles of Nanoparticles. Letters in Applied NanoBioScience [Internet]. 2020 Oct 3 [cited 2025 Oct];10(1):1877. Available from: https://doi.org/10.33263/lianbs101.18771888
[63] Toxicity of Nanoparticles – Recent Advances and New Perspectives [Internet]. IntechOpen eBooks. IntechOpen; 2023 [cited 2025 Sep]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111007
[64] Ezzati A, Valizadeh H, Hamishehkar H. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Efficient Drug and Gene Delivery Systems: Recent Breakthroughs. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin [Internet]. Tabriz University of Medical Sciences; 2015 Jun 1 [cited 2025 Oct];5(2):151. Available from: https://doi.org/10.15171/apb.2015.022
[65] Alfagih IM. Potential Toxicity of Nanoparticles for the Oral Delivery of Therapeutics. In: IntechOpen eBooks [Internet]. IntechOpen; 2024 [cited 2025 Oct]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111946
[66] Marangoz Ö, Yavuz O. Nano-drug delivery systems and their toxicological assessment. Turkish Bulletin of Hygiene and Experimental Biology [Internet]. 2020 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Oct];77(4):509. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5505/turkhijyen.2020.37790
[67] Sharma A, Mehta V, Parashar A, Patrwal R, Malairaman U. SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLE: FABRICATED THROUGH NANOPRECIPITATION AND THEIR PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences [Internet]. 2016 Aug 12 [cited 2025 Sep];8(10):144. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2016v8i10.13207
[68] Srinivasan V, Palanisamy P. Carbon Nanotubes: An Optimistic Nanomaterial with Superfluity Characteristics in Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Arthritis. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research [Internet]. 2022 Oct 1 [cited 2025 Oct];56. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5530/ijper.56.4s.210
[69] Brugè F, Damiani E, Marcheggiani F, Offerta A, Puglia C, Tiano L. A comparative study on the possible cytotoxic effects of different nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) compositions in human dermal fibroblasts. International Journal of Pharmaceutics [Internet]. 2015 Sep 21 [cited 2025 Oct];495(2):879. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.09.033
[70] Jamshaid H, Din F ud, Khan GM. Nanotechnology based solutions for anti-leishmanial impediments: a detailed insight. Journal of Nanobiotechnology [Internet]. BioMed Central; 2021 Apr 15 [cited 2025 Oct];19(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-021-00853-0
[71] Yaddalapudi S, Palla G, Krishnaiah D bala P. SOLID LIPID NANO PARTICLES – A REVIEW. Journal of Comprehensive Pharmacy [Internet]. 2015 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Oct];2(4):128. Available from: https://doi.org/10.37483/jcp.2015.2404
[72] SOWMYA C, K. SPK, H. AA. SOLID LIPID NANOPARTILCES: MODERN PROGRESS IN NOSE-TO-BRAIN TRANSDUCTION. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics [Internet]. 2023 Jul 7 [cited 2025 Oct];20. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2023v15i4.47897
[73] Shinde P, Mulla JAS. Advancements in Nanoemulsion-Based Transdermal Systems for Enhanced Anticonvulsant Therapy in Chronic Neuropathic Pain. 2024;
[74] Al-sayadi GMH, Verma A, Choudhary Y, Sandal P, Patel P, Singh D, et al. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs): Advancements in ModificationStrategies Toward Drug Delivery Vehicle. Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology [Internet]. Bentham Science Publishers; 2022 Oct 28 [cited 2025 Nov];11(2):138. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2174/2211738511666221026163303
[75] Festus-Ikhuoria IC, Obiuto NC, Adebayo RA, Olajiga OK. Nanotechnology in consumer products: A review of applications and safety considerations. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews [Internet]. GSC Online Press; 2023 Mar 30 [cited 2025 Oct];21(3):2050. Available from: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.3.0923
[76] Sivadasan D, Ramakrishnan K, Mahendran J, Ranganathan H, Karuppaiah A, Rahman H. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Applications and Prospects in Cancer Treatment. International Journal of Molecular Sciences [Internet]. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute; 2023 Mar 24 [cited 2025 Oct];24(7):6199. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076199
[77] Raju D. Case studies of enhanced pharmacodynamic activity of poorly oral bioavailable drugs via solid lipid nanoparticles. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics [Internet]. 2021 Mar 15 [cited 2025 Sep];11(2):204. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i2.4582
[78] Mendoza‐Muñoz N, Urbán‐Morlán Z, Leyva‐Gómez G, Zambrano‐Zaragoza ML, Piñón‐Segundo E, Quintanar‐Guerrero D. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: An Approach to Improve Oral Drug Delivery. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences [Internet]. Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences; 2021 Oct 13 [cited 2025 Aug];24:509. Available from: https://doi.org/10.18433/jpps31788
[79] Joun I, Nixdorf S, Deng W. Advances in lipid-based nanocarriers for breast cancer metastasis treatment. Frontiers in Medical Technology [Internet]. Frontiers Media; 2022 Aug 18 [cited 2025 Sep];4. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmedt.2022.893056
[80] Gajbhiye SA, Patil MP. SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES: A REVIEW ON DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES TO TREAT BREAST CANCER. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics [Internet]. Innovare Academic Sciences; 2023 Mar 7 [cited 2025 Oct];52. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2023v15i2.46970
[81] Waheed I, Ali A, Tabassum H, Khatoon N, Lai W, Zhou X. Lipid-based nanoparticles as drug delivery carriers for cancer therapy. Frontiers in Oncology [Internet]. 2024 Apr 10 [cited 2025 Oct];14. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2024.1296091
[82] Abbasalipourkabir R, Ziamajidi N. An Overview of the Role of Nanoparticles in Handling the Breast Cancer. Avicenna Journal of Medical Biochemistry. 2019 Jun 25 [cited 2025 Feb];7(1):1. Available from: https://doi.org/10.34172/ajmb.2019.01